SAT阅读文章Andrew Johnson vetoed the Civil Rights Act of 1866

SAT阅读：AndrewJohnsonvetoedtheCivilRightsActof1866

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选题：

19AndrewJohnsonvetoedtheCivilRightsActof1866primarilybecausehebelieved?

(A)itsprovisionswerealreadycoveredintheFourteenthAmendment

(B)itviolatedstates’rights

(C)itshouldhaveincludedwomen’srights

(D)itwouldbeunnecessaryonceReconstructionwentintoeffect

(E)itwasnotstrongenoughtocounteracttheblackcodes

Thecorrectansweris(B).

选段：

目的方式

TherootsoftheCivilRightsActof1866aretraceabletotheEmancipationProclamation,deliveredbyPresidentAbrahamLincolnonJanuary1,1863,whichfreedslavesheldinbondageintherebelstates.Insomeways,theproclamationappearstohavebeencraftedtoachievecertainmilitarygoalsratherthanadvancetheabolitionistmovementperse.Thedeclarationoffreedomforblacksintherebelstateswasintendedtodestabilizeplantationsocietybyencouragingslavestochallengeauthority.SlavesforcedintoserviceaslaborersonbehalfoftheSouthernArmywouldbecomeinsubordinate.Plantations,drainedofsouthernwhitemenwhoweredrawnintomilitaryservice,wereadministeredbythewivesandelderlymen.Notsurprisingly,slaveswouldbegintochallengetheirauthorityinwaysthatservedasadistractiontothewareffort.

事态发展

Althoughtheproclamationwasgroundedinmilitarynecessity,however,itquicklytransformedthepoliticallandscapeandstrengthenedoppositiontotheinstitutionofslavery.AsPresidentLincolnnotedinDecember1863,slaveryhadnowbecomea"moralimpossibility"inAmericansociety.Thegrowingantislaverysentimentwas/confirm/iedbyelectionresultsin1864,whichsweptintoCongressacoregroupofRepublicanleaderssupportiveofprogressiveReconstructioneffortsandprotectionoftherightsandinterestsofblacks.

AndrewJohnson'sascensiontothepresidencyfollowingLincoln'sassassinationsignaledaturningpointinthepostwarReconstructionefforts.BeginninginMay1865,PresidentJohnsoninstitutedapolicyofPresidentialReconstructiondesignedtoreconstitutetheUnionasquicklyandpainlesslyaspossible.LincolnunderstoodthattherestorationoftheSouthernstatestotheUnionwasinsufficientwithoutareconstructionofSouthernbeliefsandattitudesconcerningslaveryandtheSouthernwayoflife.ButJohnson'sReconstructioneasedrequirementsforreentryintotheUnionandencouragedadefiantassertionofstates'rightsandresistancetoblacksuffrage.AsthehistorianEricFonerwrotein1988,Johnson'sReconstructionempoweredwhiteSouthernersto"shapethetransitionfromslaverytofreedomanddefineblacks'civilstatuswithoutNortherninterference"(p.189).

选文：

CivilRightsActOf1866

Actof1866

TheCivilRightsActof1866(14Stat.27)wasamomentouschapterinthedevelopmentofcivicequalityfornewlyemancipatedblacksintheyearsfollowingtheCivilWar.TheactaccomplishedthreeprimaryobjectivesdesignedtointegrateblacksintomainstreamAmericansociety.First,theactproclaimed"thatallpersonsbornintheUnitedStates...areherebydeclaredtobecitizensoftheUnitedStates."Second,theactspecificallydefinestherightsofAmericancitizenship:

Suchcitizens,ofeveryraceandcolor,andwithoutregardtoanypreviousconditionofslaveryorinvoluntaryservitude,...shallhavethesamerightineverystateandterritoryintheUnitedStates,tomakeandenforcecontracts,tosue,beparties,andgiveevidence,toinherit,purchase,lease,sell,hold,andconveyrealandpersonalproperty,andtofullandequalbenefitofalllawsandproceedingsforthesecurityofpersonandproperty,asisenjoyedbywhitecitizens,andshallbesubjecttolikepunishment,pains,andpenalties,andtononeother,anylaw,statute,ordinance,regulation,orcustomtothecontrarynotwithstanding.

Third,theactmadeitunlawfultodepriveapersonofanyoftheserightsofcitizenshiponthebasisofrace,color,orpriorconditionofslaveryorinvoluntaryservitude.

TherootsoftheCivilRightsActof1866aretraceabletotheEmancipationProclamation,deliveredbyPresidentAbrahamLincolnonJanuary1,1863,whichfreedslavesheldinbondageintherebelstates.Insomeways,theproclamationappearstohavebeencraftedtoachievecertainmilitarygoalsratherthanadvancetheabolitionistmovementperse.Thedeclarationoffreedomforblacksintherebelstateswasintendedtodestabilizeplantationsocietybyencouragingslavestochallengeauthority.SlavesforcedintoserviceaslaborersonbehalfoftheSouthernArmywouldbecomeinsubordinate.Plantations,drainedofsouthernwhitemenwhoweredrawnintomilitaryservice,wereadministeredbythewivesandelderlymen.Notsurprisingly,slaveswouldbegintochallengetheirauthorityinwaysthatservedasadistractiontothewareffort.

AsecondmilitarygoalwastosecurealaborsourcetosupporttheeverexpandingUnionmilitaryefforts.PerhapsthemostradicalfeatureoftheEmancipationProclamationwastheenrollmentoffreeandnewlyemancipatedblacksintomilitaryservice.Blacksoldiers,thoughnotconsideredequaltotheirwhitecounterparts,neverthelessplayedacrucialroleinconstructingandholdingfortifiedpositions,andensuredtheflowofgoodsalongUnionsupplylines.

Althoughtheproclamationwasgroundedinmilitarynecessity,however,itquicklytransformedthepoliticallandscapeandstrengthenedoppositiontotheinstitutionofslavery.AsPresidentLincolnnotedinDecember1863,slaveryhadnowbecomea"moralimpossibility"inAmericansociety.Thegrowingantislaverysentimentwas/confirm/iedbyelectionresultsin1864,whichsweptintoCongressacoregroupofRepublicanleaderssupportiveofprogressiveReconstructioneffortsandprotectionoftherightsandinterestsofblacks.

AndrewJohnson'sascensiontothepresidencyfollowingLincoln'sassassinationsignaledaturningpointinthepostwarReconstructionefforts.BeginninginMay1865,PresidentJohnsoninstitutedapolicyofPresidentialReconstructiondesignedtoreconstitutetheUnionasquicklyandpainlesslyaspossible.LincolnunderstoodthattherestorationoftheSouthernstatestotheUnionwasinsufficientwithoutareconstructionofSouthernbeliefsandattitudesconcerningslaveryandtheSouthernwayoflife.ButJohnson'sReconstructioneasedrequirementsforreentryintotheUnionandencouragedadefiantassertionofstates'rightsandresistancetoblacksuffrage.AsthehistorianEricFonerwrotein1988,Johnson'sReconstructionempoweredwhiteSouthernersto"shapethetransitionfromslaverytofreedomanddefineblacks'civilstatuswithoutNortherninterference"(p.189).

Notsurprisingly,aswhitesregainedsocialandgovernmentalcontrolfromUniongovernorsinaccordwithJohnson'spolicies,theyoftenundertooksimultaneouseffortstoseverelylimitaccessbynewlyemancipatedblackstotheordinaryrightsandlibertiesenjoyedbywhites.Formerconfederatestates—suchasSouthCarolina,Mississippi,andAlabama—passedandstrictlyenforced"BlackCodes,"oppressivelawsthatappliedonlytoblacks.BlackCodestookavarietyofforms,includingmandatoryapprenticeshiplaws,oppressivelaborcontractlaws,strictvagrancylaws,andrestrictivetravellaws.BlackCodesoftenauthorizedmoreseverepunishmentofblacksthanofwhitesfortheidenticalconduct.

InadditiontotheBlackCodes,Southernersengagedinprivateactsofdiscriminationandoutrightviolenceagainstfreedmen.AsFonerrecounts,"thepervasivenessofviolence[againstblacksaftertheCivilWar]reflectedwhites'determinationtodefine[freedomintheirownway,]...inmattersoffamily,church,labor,orpersonaldemeanor"(p.120).HistorianRandallKennedynotesthatthissometimesledtothebeatingorkillingofblacksforsuch"infractions"as"failingtostepoffsidewalks,objectingtobeatingsoftheirchildren,addressingwhiteswithoutdeference,andattemptingtovote"(1997,p.39).

AlthoughtheThirteenthAmendmenthadbeenratified,andslaveryconstitutionallyabolished,prevailingpoliciesintheSouththreatenedtomakeamockeryofthefreedomgrantedtoblacks.UndertheleadershipofRepresentativeThaddeusStevensofPennsylvania,theJointCommitteeonReconstructionwasformedtomonitorandreacttoraciallyoppressiveconditionsintheSouth.TheJointCommittee,ingrapplingwiththequestionof"howthelibertiesoftheblackraceweretobemadesecure,"ultimatelyarrivedattheconclusionthatadditionalmeasuresneededtobeadoptedforthesafetyandelevationofnewlyemancipatedblacks.OneofthoseadditionalmeasureswouldbecometheCivilRightsActof1866.

LEGISLATIVEDEBATE

SenatorLymanTrumbullofIllinoisintroducedthebillthatwouldlaterbecometheCivilRightsActof1866.TrumbulltoldtheThirty-NinthCongressthattheproposedlegislationwasneededtoreinforcethegrantoffreedomtoblackssecuredbyratificationoftheThirteenthAmendment:"WhenitcomestobeunderstoodinallpartsoftheUnitedStatesthatanypersonwhoshalldepriveanotherofanyrightorsubjecthimtoanypunishmentinconsequenceofhiscolororracewillexposehimselftofineandimprisonment,Ithinksuchactswillsooncease."TrumbulldeclaredhisintentiontodestroythediscriminatoryBlackCodes.OtherRepublicancongressmenfocusedontherightsofblacks"tomakecontractsfortheirownlabor,thepowertoenforcepaymentoftheirwages,andthemeansofholdingandenjoyingtheproceedsoftheirtoil."Ifstatescoulddepriveblacksofthesefundamentalrights,asoneCongressmanremarked,"Idemandtoknow,ofwhatpracticalvalueistheamendmentabolishingslavery?"

THEBILL'SLIMITEDDEFINITIONOFRIGHTS

Althoughradicalforitstime,itisimportanttounderstandthelimitsofthebill.ThebillplainlysoughttooverruletheBlackCodesbyaffirmingthefullcitizenshipofnewlyemancipatedblacksandbydefiningcitizenshipintermsapplicabletoallpersons.Underthebill,thedesignationasanAmericancitizenmeantthatonepossessedcertainspecificrights,suchastherighttomakeandenforcecontracts,therighttofilelawsuitsandparticipateinlawsuitsaspartiesorwitnesses,andtherighttoinherit,purchase,lease,sell,holdandconveyrealproperty.Indefiningcitizenshipinthismanner,theacteffectivelyoverruledstate-sponsoredBlackCodes.

Atthesametime,theactspecifiedthattheserightswere"civilrights,"givingthefirstclearindicationthat,inthecontextofracerelations,thereweredifferentlevels,ortiers,ofrightsatstake."Civilrights"atthistimewereunderstoodintermsofpropertyrights,contractrights,andequalprotectionofthelaws.Theserightsweredistinctfrom"politicalrights,"whichinvolvedtherighttovoteandholdpublicoffice,and"socialrights,"whichrelatedtoaccesstopublicaccommodationsandthelike.Thusthebillreflectedthecommonviewthatpoliticalparticipationandsocialintegrationweremoreorless"privileges"andnotbasicelementsofcitizenship.

PoliticalrightswouldlaterbesecuredbytheratificationoftheFifteenthAmendmentandthepassageofcivilrightslegislationin1870,andrevisitednearlyacenturylaterintheCivilRightsActof1965.Congress'sattempttograntsocialrightstoblacksintheCivilRightsActof1875wasstruckdownbytheUnitedStatesSupremeCourtasunconstitutionalinTheCivilRightsCases(1883).However,CongressultimatelyprevailedingrantingsocialrightstoblackswiththepassageoftheCivilRightsActof1964.

PRESIDENTIALVETO

Despitetheseapparentlimitsonthescopeofprotectionsaffordedundertheact,PresidentJohnsonneverthelessvetoedthebill.Johnson'sprincipalobjectionwasamatterofprocedure.InhisvetomessagehearguedthatCongresslackedtheconstitutionalauthoritytoenactthebillbecause"elevenofthethirty-sixStatesareunrepresentedinCongressatthepresenttime."Johnsonalsomadeclear,however,thatherejectedtheveryideaoffederalprotectionofcivilrightsforblacks,arguingthatsuchapracticeviolated"allourexperienceasapeople"andrepresentedadisturbingmove"towardcentralizationandtheconcentrationofalllegislativepowersinthenationalgovernment."

PerhapsthemoststrikingfeatureofJohnson'svetomessagewasitsracismandinflammatorylanguage.Forexample,Johnsonobjectedthattheactestablished"forthesecurityofthecoloredracesafeguardswhichgoinfinitelybeyondanythatthegeneralgovernmenthaseverprovidedtothewhiterace.Infact,thedistinctionofraceandcolorisbythebillmadetooperateinfavorofthecoloredandagainstthewhiterace."Johnsonalsoarguedthatblacksweresimplyunpreparedtobecomecitizens,atleastascomparedtoimmigrantsfromabroad,because,havingbeenslaves,theywere"lessinformedastothenatureandcharacterofourinstitutions."Johnsonevenmentionedthesupposedthreatofinterracialmarriage,suggestingthatprotectionofthecivilrightsofnewlyemancipatedblackswouldsomehowupsettheestablishedsocialhierarchy.

TheeffectofJohnson'svetowastostrengthenRepublicanoppositiontohispresidentialpolicy.CongressoverrodethevetoandenactedtheCivilRightsActof1866.ItalsoproposedtheFourteenthAmendmenttotheU.S.Constitutiontoremovealldoubtaboutitspowertopassthissortofprotectivelegislation.Unlikethe1866act,however,theFourteenthAmendment,ratifiedtwoyearslater,employsgenerallanguagetoprohibitdiscriminationagainstcitizensandtoensureequalprotectionunderthelaws.IncorporatingtheseprotectionsintotheConstitutionmarkedacriticalmomentinthedevelopmentoffederalpoweroverthestateswhenitcametoprotectingtherightsofcitizens.Toemphasizethisnewcommitmenttofederalpower,theCivilRightsActof1866wasreenactedassection18oftheCivilRightsActof1870.The1870actprohibitedconspiraciesoftwoormorepersonsthatthreatenedacitizen's"enjoymentofanyrightorprivilegegrantedorsecuredtohimbytheConstitutionorlawsoftheUnitedStates."Italsoextendedfederalprotectiontovotingrightsforblacks.

THEACT'SENDURINGSPIRIT

ThespiritoftheCivilRightsActof1866livesoninmodernantidiscriminationlaws.onesuchlaw(42U.S.C.,section1981)provides,inlanguagederivedlargelyfromsection1ofthe1866act,that"allpersonswithinthejurisdictionoftheUnitedStatesshallhavethesamerightineveryStateandTerritorytomakeandenforcecontracts,tosue,beparties,giveevidence,andtothefullandequalbenefitofalllawsandproceedingsforthesecurityofpersonsandpropertyasisenjoyedbywhitecitizens."Thislawisoftenreliedonbyplaintiffsallegingemploymentdiscriminationordiscriminationinpublicorprivateeducation.Anotherlaw(42U.S.C.,section1982),whichwasoriginallyapartofsection1ofthe1866act,"barsallracialdiscrimination,privateaswellaspublic,inthesaleorrentalofproperty,"andisfrequentlyusedinconnectionwithhousingdiscriminationlawsuits.Alaw(42U.S.C.,section1983)grantingprivateindividualstodaytherighttosuefordeprivationofcivilrightsbystateofficialsechoessection2ofthe1866actaswellasasubsequentact,theCivilRightsActof1871(alsoknownastheKuKluxKlanAct),whichauthorizedcivilandcriminalpenaltiesagainstrightsviolatorsinresponsetoclaimsoflawlessnessintheSouth.

Seealso:CivilRightsActsof1875,1957,1964;FairHousingActof1968;ForceAct;KuKluxKlanAct;VotingRightsActof1965.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

DuBois,W.E.B.BlackReconstructioninAmerica:1860–1880.NewYork:Harcourt,BraceandCompany,1935.

Foner,Eric.Reconstruction:America'sUnfinishedRevolution1863–1877.NewYork:Harper&Row,1988.

Hyman,HaroldM.,andWilliamM.Wiecek.EqualJusticeUnderLaw:ConstitutionalDevelopment1835–1875.NewYork:Harper&Row,1982.

Kennedy,Randall.Race,Crime,andtheLaw.NewYork:PantheonBooks,1997.

Wilson,TheodoreBrantner.TheBlackCodesoftheSouth.University:UniversityofAlabamaPress,1965.

Woodward,C.Vann.TheStrangeCareerofJimCrow,3drev.ed.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1974.

ExcerptfromtheEmancipationProclamation

Whereasonthe22nddayofSeptember,A.D.1862,aproclamationwasissuedbythePresidentoftheUnitedStates,containing,amongotherthings,thefollowing,towit:

"Thatonthe1stdayofJanuary,A.D.1863,allpersonsheldasslaveswithinanyStateordesignatedpartofaStatethepeoplewhereofshallthenbeinrebellionagainsttheUnitedStatesshallbethen,thenceforward,andforeverfree;andtheexecutivegovernmentoftheUnitedStates,includingthemilitaryandnavalauthoritythereof,willrecognizeandmaintainthefreedomofsuchpersonsandwilldonoactoractstorepresssuchpersons,oranyofthem,inanyeffortstheymaymakefortheiractualfreedom....

Andbyvirtueofthepowerandforthepurposeaforesaid,IdoorderanddeclarethatallpersonsheldasslaveswithinsaiddesignatedStatesandpartsofStatesare,andhence-forwardshallbe,free;andthattheExecutiveGovernmentoftheUnitedStates,includingthemilitaryandnavalauthoritiesthereof,willrecognizeandmaintainthefreedomofsaidpersons.

AndIherebyenjoinuponthepeoplesodeclaredtobefreetoabstainfromallviolence,unlessinnecessaryself-defence;andIrecommendtothemthat,inallcasewhenallowed,theylaborfaithfullyforreasonablewages.

AndIfurtherdeclareandmakeknownthatsuchpersonsofsuitableconditionwillbereceivedintothearmedserviceoftheUnitedStatestogarrisonforts,positions,stations,andotherplaces,andtomanvesselsofallsortsinsaidservice.

Anduponthisact,sincerelybelievedtobeanactofjustice,warrantedbytheConstitutionuponmilitarynecessity,IinvoketheconsideratejudgmentofmankindandthegraciousfavorofAlmightyGod."

CIVILRIGHTSACTOF1866

CIVILRIGHTSACTOF1866.Passedoverapresidentialvetoon9April1866,thelawdeclaredallpersonsbornintheUnitedStatestobecitizens,exceptforunassimilatedNativeAmericans,anddefinedandprotectedcitizens'civilrights.ThelawwaspartofCongress'sattempttoreconstructtheunionanderadicateslaveryaftertheCivilWar.In1865CongresshadsenttheThirteenthAmendment,whichabolishedslavery,tothestatesforratification.UnderPresidentAndrewJohnson'sprogramforrestoringtheunion,theSouthernstateswererequiredtoratifytheThirteenthAmendmentandabolishslaveryintheirownstates.However,thepresidentsetnorequirementsforthetreatmentofnewlyfreedslaves.IntheSouthandinmanyNorthernstates,freeAfricanAmericanshadnotbeenconsideredstateornationalcitizensandhadbeensubjecttospecialrestrictionsofvariouskinds.InScottv.Sandford(1857)—theDredScottcase—theSupremeCourtruledthatAfricanAmericanswerenotcitizensoftheUnitedStates.Actingonthisviewofthelaw,theSouthernstategovernmentsreestablishedunderPresidentJohnson'sauthorityimposedvaryingrestrictionsontheirblackpopulations.

AlthoughJohnsonhadbeenelectedwithAbrahamLincolnontheUnionPartyticket,backedmostlybyRepublicans,theRepublicanmajorityinCongresswasunwillingtorecognizetherestorationofthestatescreatedthroughhisReconstructionprogramuntilthebasiccivilrightsofAfricanAmericansweresecured.RadicalRepublicansurgedthatmeetingthisgoalrequiredtheenfranchisementofAfricanAmericanmen.MoremoderateRepublicansfearedtobreakwiththepresidentonthatissue,suspectingthatmostvotersevenintheNorthwouldbackhim.Instead,on13March1866theypassedtheCivilRightsAct.OverturningtheDredScottdecisionandanystatelawtothecontrary,itsfirstsectiondeclaredthatallpersonsbornintheUnitedStates,exceptforNativeAmericansnotsubjecttotaxation(thatis,outsidestatejurisdiction),werecitizensoftheUnitedStatesandthestateswheretheylived.Itwentontodeclarethatallcitizenswereentitledtothesamebasiccivilrightsaswhitepersons,listingtherighttomakeandenforcecontracts,tosueandgiveevidence,todisposeofproperty,togetthesameprotectionofthelaws,andtobesubjecttothesamepunishments.Theothersectionsofthelawestablishedstringentprovisionsforitsenforcement,setpenaltiesforitsviolation,andauthorizedthetransferoflegalproceedingsfromstatecourtstofederalcourtsinanystatewhosecourtsdidnotconformtotheact'sprovisions.

PresidentJohnsonvetoedthebillon27March1866,signalinghisclearbreakwiththeleadersofthepartythathadelectedhimvicepresident.However,mostRepublicanvotersbelievedcivilrightslegislationnecessarytoprotectformerslaves,andfewfollowedthepresident'slead.InJune1866CongresspassedtheFourteenthAmendment,whichwasratifiedbytherequisitenumberofstatesin1868.AlthoughdevelopedseparatelyfromtheCivilRightsAct,itsfirstsectionestablishedasimilardefinitionofcitizenshipandamoreabstractstatementoftherightsofcitizensandotherpersons.TheCivilRightsActwasrepassedaspartofthelegislationtoenforcetheamendment.ItsprovisionsarestillincorporatedinvarioussectionsofTitle42(PublicHealthandWelfare)oftheUnitedStatesCode.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Benedict,MichaelLes."PreservingtheConstitution:TheConservativeBasisofRadicalReconstruction."JournalofAmericanHistory61(June1974):65–90.

Cox,LaWanda,andJohnH.Cox.Politics,Principle,andPrejudice,1865–1866:DilemmaofReconstructionAmerica.NewYork:FreePressofGlencoe,1963.

Kaczorowski,RobertJ."TheEnforcementProvisionsoftheCivilRightsActof1866:ALegislativeHistoryinLightofRunyonv.McCrary."YaleLawJournal98(January1989):565–595.

Zuckert,Michael."FundamentalRights,theSupremeCourt,andAmericanConstitutionalism:TheLessonsoftheCivilRightsActof1866."InTheSupremeCourtandAmericanConstitutionalism.EditedbyBradfordP.WilsonandKenMasugi.Lanham,Md.:RowmanandLittlefield,1998.

MichaelL.Benedict

TheCivilRightsActof1866wasthefirstpieceoffederalcivilrightslegislationtobeenactedintolaw.AftertheAmericanCivilWar(1861–65),southernstatesresistedthenewsocialstatusoffreedblacksbyenactingBlackCodes.BlackCodeswerestatelawsaimedatlimitingtherightsandfreedomsofblacksandavoidingtheirintegrationintowhitesociety.CongresspassedtheCivilRightsActof1866inanattempttoestablishandprotecttherightsofblacksagainstsuchmeasures.

TheActestablishedthefirstdefinitionofAmericancitizenship,basingitonbirthwithintheUnitedStates.Itthensetforthrightsandprivilegesguaranteedtoallcitizens,regardlessofraceorcolor.Amongthemweretheabilitytomakecontracts,tosueothers,toinherit,purchase,lease,orsellproperty,andtohaveaccesstocourtprocedures.Theactassertedthatnostateorlocallawcouldrestricttheserights,anditauthorizedfederalprosecutionofthosewhoattemptedtopreventcitizensfromexercisingthoserights.

ThebillwasauthoredbyU.S.senatorLymanTrumbull(1813–1896)ofIllinois.TrumbullwasamoderateRepublicanwhohadinitiallysupportedthemildReconstructionpoliciesofPresidentAndrewJohnson(1808–1875;served1865–69);thesepoliciesweredesignedtobringthesecessionistSouthbackintothefederalUnionbyafairandjustprocess.Interracialviolence,however,hadrisentosuchlevels

thatTrumbullbecameastrongadvocateoffederallegislationtoprotectthecivilrightsofblacks.

ThereweremanyradicalRepublicanswhosoughttostrengthenthebillbyaddingprotectionforblackvotingrightsandcontinuousfederalscrutinyofstateandlocalactions.Thebill,however,passedbothhousesofCongresswithnearlyunanimoussupportinFebruary1866withoutsuchadditionalmeasures.PresidentJohnsonrejectedthebillwithapresidentialveto.OnApril9,1866,Congressoverrodetheveto,makingtheCivilRightsActthefirstpieceoflegislationtobepassedinspiteofapresidentialveto.

TheCivilRightsActof1866provedtobedifficulttoenforce.Deliberationoverthebill,however,contributedtoCongress'sdecisiontoprepareaconstitutionalamendmenttoprovideanadequatefoundationforcivilrightslegislation.TheFourteenthAmendment,proposedlaterthatyearandadoptedin1868,suppliedapermanentfederaldefinitionofAmericanandstatecitizenshipandstrengthenedtheequalprotectionimplicationsoftheCivilRightsActof1866.SupremeCourtinterpretationoftheFourteenthAmendment,however,wouldenablestatestotreatblacksunequallyunderthelawuntilthecivilrightsmovementinthemiddleofthetwentiethcentury.